Partition of India: 1947
The division of British India into two independent nations was marked by the ending of British colonial rule under the 1947 Indian Independence Act. The act was set to go into effect on Aug. 15, 1947 and separated the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh populations residing in the area between the sovereign states of India and Pakistan. During this time, about 12 million people were crossing the borders of the two nations, with Muslims moving west and Hindus and Sikhs to the east. Arising from this migration was communal violence, riots and border disputes, resulting in the deaths of between 200,000 and 2 million individuals.
First Indo-Pakistani War / First Kashmir War: 1947-1948
The First Indo-Pakistani War, also known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the state of Jammu and Kashmir. During the time of partition, the Hindu maharaja of Kashmir Hari Singh, sought to retain independence from both new nations. As rebellion broke out by pro-Pakistani residents in Kashmir, armed groups from Pakistan invaded the area. Singh made an appeal to India for military assistance.
India’s first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, intervened in the unfolding events, but on the condition that Singh signed an Instrument of Accession merging Jammu and Kashmir with India. The document was signed on Oct. 26, 1947. By the language of the document, Singh declared that he “accede to the Dominion of India … exercise in relation to the state of Jammu and Kashmir” and that “such functions may be vested in them by or under the Government of India.” This resulted in India gaining two-thirds of Kashmir.
The Karachi Agreement: 1949
Under the United Nations (UN) Security Council resolution 39, established in 1948, the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) was created to “investigate any dispute or any situation which might … endanger the maintenance of international peace and security … in the existing state of affairs between India and Pakistan.” The UNCIP team was enlarged through Resolution 47 and recommended the use of observers to stop the conflict in the area. In July of 1949, representatives from India and Pakistan met to sign the Karachi Agreement and establish a ceasefire line supervised by military observers. These observers made up the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP), and continued to supervise the ceasefire after the dissolution of UNCIP under Resolution 91.
The Second Indo-Pakistani War / Operation Gibraltar: 1965
The second war over Kashmir was reported to have begun when between 26,000 and 33,000 Pakistani soldiers dressed as civilians crossed the ceasefire line into Indian-Held Kashmir. This event was also known as Operation Gibraltar, a covert mission by Pakistan to infiltrate Jammu and Kashmir to incite rebellion against Indian rule. Operation Gibraltar aimed to have “infiltrators mingle with the local populace and incite them to rebellion” while guerilla warfare commenced. The operation ended in failure, as most of the force was discovered by India’s army and local support did not materialize.
As fighting was prompted across the border, a UN mandate ceasefire was brokered, ending the war with the Tashkent Agreement in 1966, which restored pre-war boundaries but left the Kashmir dispute unresolved. The agreement was signed between the Prime Minister of India and the President of Pakistan and aimed “to restore normal and peaceful relationships between their countries” as it is “of vital importance for the welfare of the 600 million people of India and Pakistan.”
Third Indo-Pakistani War / Bangladesh Liberation War: 1971
Following the 1970 election victory of the Awami League, Pakistan began a political and military crackdown in East Pakistan in what is now modern day Bangladesh. The Awami League was led by Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, and their campaign was established on the party’s Six-Point Plan for regional autonomy for East Pakistan.
India intervened in support of Bengali independence after nearly 15 million refugees fled to India, resulting in a war which ended with Indian victory. In the end, Bangladesh emerged as a sovereign nation as an Instrument of Surrender was signed by General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi of Pakistan and General Jagjit Singh Aurora of India.
Simla Agreement: 1972
The Simla Agreement was signed on July 2, 1972 by India’s Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and the President of Pakistan Zulifar Ali Bhutto for the countries of India and Pakistan to “put an end to the conflict and confrontation that have hitherto marred their relations and work for the promotion of a friend and harmonious relationship.” Within the document, they agreed that the United Nations charter will govern relations between the two countries, that differences will be resolved through peaceful means and that they will respect the other’s national unity and territorial integrity. Through this framework, they aimed to have peaceful interactions between the two nations in the future.
Brasstacks Crisis / Operation Brasstacks: 1986-1987
The Brasstacks Crisis occurred when India conducted Operation Brasstacks, a military exercise, near the Pakistan border. Pakistan, seeing the exercise as a precursor to invasion, mobilized its troops, and began a military standoff between the two nations.
The crisis itself was a nuclear scare between India and Pakistan. During this time period, Pakistani Nuclear Scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan mentioned in an interview to Indian diplomat, Kudip Nayar, that “Pakistan would use its atomic weapons if its existence was threatened.”
Kashmiri armed insurgency: 1989
The Kashmiri armed insurgency was spurred by the results of the 1987 Jammu and Kashmir elections, which many perceived to be rigged by the Indian government to keep pro-India parties in power. Beginning as a response to the political repression and rigged elections, many Kashmiris sought independence or union with Pakistan, and eventually became militarized with support from Pakistan-based groups.
Nuclear tests begin: 1998
Beginning in 1998, India and Pakistan conducted a series of nuclear tests which marked a turning point for security dynamics for the two nations. During Operation Shakti in May, India performed five underground nuclear tests and declared itself a nuclear weapons state. In response, Pakistan conducted six nuclear tests of their own in May at Balochistan.
In 1999, both countries ended up signing the Lahore Declaration 1999 to reduce the risk of accidental nuclear conflict. Reiterating points from previous agreements, both India and Pakistan agreed that they will continue to not only work on resolving issues regarding Jammu and Kashmir but also “take immediate steps for reducing the risk of accidental or unauthorized use of nuclear weapons.” The declaration was signed off by the Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan, but mentioned that the “technical details of the above measures” will be worked out by experts from both sides.
Kargil War: 1999
The Kargil War took place when Pakistani militants crossed the Line of Control during Operation Badr and occupied parts of the Kargil region of India-held Kashmir. Responding to the action, India launched Operation Vijay to drive out the infiltrators, and after intense fighting and international diplomatic pressure, Pakistan withdrew its forces from the region after Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and Former United States President Bill Clinton met on July 4, 1999. The conflict ended with India regaining most of the lost territory, but led to heightened tensions among the two nations. India now observes the end of the conflict as Kargil Vijay Diwas.
Indian Parliament Attack: 2001
On Dec. 13, 2001, five armed militants stormed the Parliament complex in New Delhi, killing nine and injuring several others. All militants were killed in the gun battle that took place, but the assault was seen as an attack on Indian democracy. India blamed Pakistani militant group Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) and Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) for orchestrating the attack, furthering tensions from past events. The incident led to a massive military standoff known as Operation Parakram, but full-out war was avoided.
President Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan denied any involvement in the attack on the Parliament. There was no international consensus tying leadership of JeM or LeT to the planning of the attack. In response to international pressure, Pakistan took steps to ban JeM and LeT and arrested several members of the organization.
Mumbai Attacks: 2008
The Mumbai Attacks took place in November of 2008 when 10 gunmen from LeT carried out assaults across multiple sites in Mumbai. 166 people died as a result of the attacks and over 300 were injured. Ajmal Kasab, was the only member of the group to be apprehended alive by the Indian police and confessed to the LeT’s Pakistani origins and support.
Pakistan denied involvement with the Mumbai attacks, and initially denied Kasab’s Pakistani citizenship until evidence was brought forward. They then launched their own investigations and arrested several individuals such as Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi, a senior LeT commander.
Uri Attack: 2016
17 Indian soldiers were killed in an assault by four militants near the Line of Control, marking the attack as the Uri Attack. India accused JeM for the attack and accused Pakistan for providing support to the organization. Retaliating, India then conducted surgical strikes across the Line of Control further escalating tensions between the two nations. The Uri Attack marked a turning point in Indian military doctrine, with preemptive cross-border strikes becoming a more public aspect of their counter-terror strategy.
Courtesy of Tawseef Nazir via Shutterstock
The 19th South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Summit held in Pakistan was canceled due to diplomatic fallout as a result of the attacks. India, in response to the attacks, announced it would not participate in the summit, and in solidarity with the nation, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan also pulled out. As four out of eight members states withdrew, the SAARC summit could not meet consensus and the event was postponed indefinitely,
Article 370 revoked: 2019
On Aug. 5, 2019, the Indian Government, led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) announced that Article 370 of the Indian Constitution would be repealed. This led the state to be separated into two Union Territories, Jammu and Kashmir with a legislative assembly, and Ladakh without a legislative assembly. By removing the separate constitution of Jammu and Kashmir, they subjected the region to a full Indian legal framework and imposed a security lockdown in the region.
Pahalgam Attack: 2025
On April 22, 2025, the Pahalgam attack occurred when five armed terrorists killed 26 citizens near the city of Pahalgam. They were said to mainly target Hindu tourists, but a Christian tourist and local Muslim inhabitants were also casualties. The Resistance Front (TRF), believed to be an offshoot of LeT, claimed responsibility for the attack initially, releasing a statement that they orchestrated the attack due to the abolition of the special status of Kashmir. However, they later denied involvement in the attack and claimed Indian cyber-intelligence for earlier reports.
Operation Sindoor: 2025
On May 7, 2025, following a series of cross-border firings across the Line of Control, India launched missile strikes on Pakistan, named Operation Sindoor. According to reports from the Indian government, the strikes targeted militant groups JeM and LeT. However, reports from Pakistan claim that the strikes hit civilian areas, including mosques and killed 37 civilians.
Disclaimer:
The information in this article is meant to provide context and is not a complete history of events in India and Pakistan. This is merely a timeline of events, and does not reflect any opinions of Highlander News. To learn more about any event, check out the article online for linked information.
